Corporation Finance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Corporation Finance - Assignment Example These firms are targeted owing to ever growing demand for metals because of its high value that has constantly soar especially iron and aluminum, that up to present is being recycled whenever possible as a result of the value of their physical and chemical characteristics. The Business will be of great importance to its clients (processing companies) as it will save them energy and resources in collecting and treating the scrap metals. 1.3 MAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION PLAN Eco-Super Scrap Metals LTD management will consist of many employees and self-employed persons contracted by the company. However, the executive management team will consist of general manager, accountant, casual laborers and permanent and pensionable employees such trainers, supervisors and coordinators, who will be manning the sites and training other employees on health and safety of when working within the company. 1.4 OPERATIONAL AND PRODUCTION PLAN The premise and other basic utilities such as operational servic es like electricity will be acquired on rental basis rental bill being paid on monthly terms. However, the business machinery and fix assets such as, treatment plants and other essential paraphernalia like computers, printers, photocopier and furniture will be owned by the business as the initial capital fixed assets. 1.5 FINANCIAL PLAN The starting Capital will be $1,000,000 inclusive of operational capital of $ 700,000. The businesses will obtain this initial capital from owners’ personal savings, amounting to $. 200,000 and a funding through bank loan of $ 800,000. 2.0 BUSINESS DESCRIPTION Eco-Super Scrap Metals LTD main business will be collecting the scrap metals from the environment and treating these metals before trading them to metal processing company. In doing so, it will also be committed to clean environment, making it safety for habitation 2.1 Business Name The business will operate under the name Eco-Super Scrap Metals LTD. This business, given that it is not a new business idea in the region, will be subjected to competition from other firms of similar business. The business commences its operation soon after meeting the qualifications requirements imposed by the regulation bodies and registrar of business. 2.2 Physical Location Eco-Super Scrap Metals LTD will be concern with collecting the scrap metals from the building sites and also will have a centered point for collection in East London next to A13 motorway, to facilitate easy connection with the city. 2.2.1 Mission Statement The mission of the business is to collect and sell treated scrap metals to metal processing firms, before it goes to landfill, and in doing so, clean the environment for sustainability for habitation. 2.2.2 Vision To be the leading scrap metal industry in the entire Europe and outside the continent 2.2.3 Core Values i. Quality- The business main concern is on its customers and environment and so will strive to serve them diligently and upgrading the environment in its effort to be excellent through evaluation and continuous improvement. ii. Efficiency- Being efficient and effective in our mode of operation and give the best at all the time. iii. Passion- Concentrating on the work we do in both our minds and heart to give the best. iv. Accountability- Taking responsibility of our actions

No Advertising Essay Example for Free

No Advertising Essay â€Å"What do I wear in bed? Chanel N °5, of course. †Marilyn Monroe mentioned in her interview in 19521. When referring to fragrance, it is hard not to mention Chanel N °5, due to its uniqueness, longevity and popularity, it is associated by others with women, famous and not famous, who have worn it in different eras over its decades. Chanel N °5 is the first perfume launched by CoCo Chanel in 19202, it is not only one of the world’s top selling perfumes3 but also represent a world of fantasy and reflection of the desire and pleasure of the time period. ?Prior to the introduction of magazine, newspaper is the main communication source of information and advertising in the society4. At that time period, it is one of the most effective method for advertisings to enter the house of consumer since the limitation of technological development of radio and television have not yet been discovered. Different from newspaper, magazine does not aim to target everyone, it often has very specific group of target group, presenting information and areas of interest that its target group would enjoy. In the early age of magazine, there was a great emphasize in targeting elite class of the society, which be seen from extremely informative full page of texts. After a realization of increasing number of middle class and immigrants, magazine shifted its target from the elite to middle class5, which lead to the necessity of the use of imagery to communicate. Editors of magazine has shift from elite man with a background of mostly literature to middle class man with a background relating to merchandise. Magazine realized that the profits are not made through subscriptions, but through companies market their products by buying spaces in the issue6. Advertisement in magazines has become one of the most prominent method of marketing or in another word, methods of creating desire. Chanel has always been featured their advertisement in leading female fashion related magazine such as Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar and Elle. This essay will explore the comparison of Chanel N °5 fragrance magazine advertisement from a different time period of 49 years in relationship to the cultural shift and the impact of advertisement from self satisfaction to sexual attraction which represents through values hold in gender, stereotypes, lifestyle, desire and fantasy. The two advertisements that will be used to analyze are the magazine ads of the famous Chanel N °5 perfume. ‘Chanel becomes the woman you are’ print ad in 1959 (Fig1) starring Suzy Parker, one of the most recognizable faces of the 1950s as a supermodel and actress. Suzy Parker was the signature face for Coco Chanel as she has always been associated with elegance and glamour7. The dominant part of the advertisement presents a black and white dreamy photograph of Suzy Parker in a beautiful evening gown with the perfect hair and make up, glancing slightly away from the viewers. The ads also features the well known bottle/ product, Chanel N °5 as a secondary focus with a tag line ‘Chanel becomes the woman you are’ with a paragraph expanding on it: ‘A perfume is different on different women because every woman has a skin chemistry all her own. Chanel N °5 is subtly created to blend with your own delicate essence- to be like Chanel N °5, yet deliciously like you alone. Chanel becomes you because it becomes you. ’. Similarly in one of the contemporary most famous campaign for Chanel N °5 in 2004 (Fig2), Nicole Kidman, a talented and beautiful Australian actress who enters the hollywood famously known for her elegant beauty8 was enlisted to represent the fragrance. The technological development of film, television and recent main information communication and sharing method, the internet, allow advertising to go beyond just a printed page enter to the phrase of story telling. The 2004 Nicole Kidman advertisement has a direct connection to the campaign of a mini-movie/ film which everyone has access through various sources. Due to the popularity of internet and information sharing, it is not a difficult for viewers who see the ads in the magazine to recall and connect the story in the film to print ads, allowing Chanel to create a full advertising campaign which successfully tell a story of the world famous star, Nicole Kidman, who escape from the publicity and fall in love with a stranger. The last scene of the film is used in the print ad, displaying Nicole Kidman when she returns back to her world, with a dialogue: ‘And then she was gone, as she forgotten, i know i will not her kiss, her smile and her perfume’9. The film does not mentioned any word about or show viewers what the perfume it was, the only clue was the necklace ‘N °5’ The print features in magazine depicts a beautiful photograph of Nicole Kidman in a dark background contrasting with her body- the closing eyes and ambiguous posture: turning away from or about to face the viewers in a beautiful modern black evening gown with her simply perfect up-do hair and her N °5 necklace which is wear to her back. The ads does not contain any words or explanation, only present N °5 with the signature bottle which is constantly shown throughout since the first ads. â€Å"Perfume is intended to contribute to our understanding of gender as performance rather than expression, and of identity as practice rather than essence†10 stated by Angela Partington. Fragrance has always been known as the connotation of identity, as the word ‘wear’ is used to describe the action of using. As can be seen in the 1959 Suzy Parker Chanel N °5 Ads, the tagline ‘Chanel becomes the woman you are’ aimed to create a personal, even intimate connection with the object. It does not promotes how special the product itself is, instead, it makes the individual consumer as an important ingredient. The ads makes consumers feel that it is specific individual ‘you’ who makes it extra unique and special. This advertisement illustration the shift from the emphasize in character as moral and internal sense to ethics to identity as a self focused behavior11. In contrast, the Ads featured Nicole Kidman presents an identity of a fantasy figure of famous star, a break from reality in which all women desire to have in real life. The opposite sex attraction is used as the message of this ads. It puts the audiences in a fantasy world and convince them to believe that using the produce will create the same outcome for them. This shows the values holds in identity of the society which self satisfied identity is not enough, it is more of the relationships to other people, the representation of ‘you’ through others’ eyes. The advertisings of Chanel N °5 in the two ads does not only symbolize the values in identity, it is also a great representation of gender and sexuality values hold in the society as well. Both of the Chanel N °5 Ad depicts women in a beautiful evening gown which certainly is going to attend an important social event. The two ads illustrates the roles of women in the society as a powerful individuals who has social status, not the women in the past who expect to stay home. They are the representation of the equality and balance of gender roles, and what women in the time period are desire to be. As sex roles evolved, with women entering the workforce and pushing for equality, sexual appeals casting the woman as a sex object is no longer a popular and rightful subject to present12. Referring to ‘The Erotic History of Advertising’, there is a shift of the theme of turning on men to representing the power- women in control13. It can be seen in the 1959 Chanel N °5 Ads, as the ad does not have any reference to any sexual attraction, only focusing herself in control of her own identity and representation. The different approach, however, generating the same effects, is taken in the 2004 Nicole Kidman Ads, it is the representation of the current society, how the society control her as a role of super star and how she uses perfume to make a man ‘remember’ or be under her control. It seems like there is a great manner in revisiting the theme of sexual attraction in the society. â€Å"Fragrance is a material, symbolic and visual object, and ‘image’/ fantasy articulating not just luxury and glamour, but a range of desires for transformed bodies, auto-erotic, sensual and socio-sexual experiences. 14 The discussion of gender and sexuality cannot be complete without the discussion of skin explosion as sexuality. Chanel has always been known to represent elegance, glamour and class15 which is why advertisings by Chanel are almost always associate with women attending an event in a beautiful gown . ‘Chanel becomes the woman you are’ ads display elegance in a simply conservative way, as seen through her fashionable dress of ruffles, covering Suzy Parker’s whole body, left only with the main emphasize of her face- her identity. This demonstrate their aim to sell personal identities for self satisfaction which is well supported with the text and tagline. The ads display how the society before may seen the use of sexuality to sell as an unacceptable methods and unfashionable topic to talk about in the society. In contrast, the 2004 Chanel N °5 Ads presents sexuality through various motifs such as the skin which shown through the very low cut back dress and the emotion on Nicole Kidman’s closing eyes. It is clear today that one of the leading marketing trend that would attract people’s enjoyment and attentions would involve more skin as the viewers are no longer limited to women but also to men. However, Chanel have use sexuality in a very elegant way through one technique described by the brand researcher William Baue, ‘focusing on fantasy allowed Chanel to harness the power of sexuality without crossing the border into distaste’16 Fantasy has always been associated with fragrance as a method to create desire17 which is the main motive of advertisement. In both ads, Chanel has chose to represent the brand itself through an actress- an individual whom placed in between the line of reality and dream. In 1959 Ads, even though the focus of the campaign is ‘you’ as a viewer, however, Chanel chose to represent its viewer as Suzy Parker, the famous actress. The connection of reality and fantasy is quietly made in a way that viewers may not even realize the fantasy they are dreaming of. Even through the text in the ads describe the quality and ingredients which makes the perfume becomes you as a person, it also touches on the fantasy aspect in term of the values of gender, power, identity and status described above. In obvious way, the ads featured Nicole Kidman shows and put viewers into a fantasy world in reality. Due to the technological development, the film became dominant part of the campaign allowing viewers to explore, take a break from reality and leave them with a desire- desire to become like Nicole Kidman and putting the message in their face that Chanel N °5 will allow ‘you’ to be like that. The unchanged method of using fantasy as desirable motifs to sell fragrance18 have proved that the women from then and now have and will always been interested and attracts to the word ‘could’, what she could be, what she could do and where she could go- the stage of dreaming. The development of technology allowed the 2004 Nicole Kidman campaign to successfully tell a fantasy story which almost force viewers to create their imagery fancy lifestyle picture in her head, which then lead to the desire to own the object advertised. In conclusion, the different time period advertisement of Chanel N °5 perfume in magazine advertisement demonstrate the shifting values from identity as self satisfaction toward the impressions of others. Advertisement of the two ads has became the reflection of the society’s value in gender, lifestyle, sexuality and desire. Moreover, fragrance will always be sold with a desirable motif through fantasy, it only varied in the term of the presentation method and techniques, mostly through the language of photography and language, that would attracts and communicate the people of the time.

Symmetric Encryption Schemes

Symmetric Encryption Schemes 2.1 Symmetric Encryption Schemes: With symmetric-key encryption, the encryption key can be calculated from the decryption key and vice versa. With most symmetric algorithms, the same key is used for both encryption and decryption, as shown in Figure 1.1. Implementations of symmetric-key encryption can be highly efficient, so that users do not experience any significant time delay as a result of the encryption and decryption. Symmetric-key encryption also provides a degree of authentication, since information encrypted with one symmetric key cannot be decrypted with any other symmetric key. Thus, as long as the symmetric key is kept secret by the two parties using it to encrypt communications, each party can be sure that it is communicating with the other as long as the decrypted messages continue to make sense. Encryption functions normally take a fixed-size input to a fixed-size output, so encryption of longer units of data must be done in one of two ways: either a block is encrypted at a time and the blocks are somehow joined together to make the cipher text, or a longer key is generated from a shorter one and XORd against the plaintext to make the cipher text. Schemes of the former type are called block ciphers, and schemes of the latter type are called stream ciphers. 2.1.1 Block ciphers Block ciphers take as input the key and a block, often the same size as the key. Further, the first block is often augmented by a block called the initialization vector, which can add some randomness to the encryption. 2.1.1.1 DES Algorithm: The most widely used encryption scheme is based on Data Encryption Standard (DES). There are two inputs to the encryption function, the plain text to be encrypted and the key. The plain text must be 64 bits in length and key is of 56 bits. First, the 64 bits of plain text passes through an initial permutation that rearranges the bits. This is fallowed by 16 rounds of same function, which involves permutation substitution functions. After 16 rounds of operation, the pre output is swapped at 32 bits position which is passed through final permutation to get 64 bit cipher text. Initially the key is passed through a permutation function. Then for each of the 16 rounds, a sub key is generated by a combination of left circular shift and permutation. At each round of operation, the plain text is divided to two 32 bit halves, and the fallowing operations are executed on 32 bit right halve of plain text. First it is expanded to 48 bits using a expansion table, then X-ORed with key, then processed in substitution tables to generate 32 bit output. This output is permuted using predefined table and XORed with left 32 bit plain text to form right 32 bit pre cipher text of first round. The right 32 bit plain text will form left 32 bit pre cipher text of first round. Decryption uses the same algorithm as encryption, expect that the application of sub keys is reversed. A desirable property of any encryption algorithm is that a small change in either plain text or the key should produce a significant change in the cipher text. This effect is known as Avalanche effect which is very strong in DES algorithm. Since DES is a 56 bit key encryption algorithm, if we proceed by brute force attack, the number of keys that are required to break the algorithm is 2 56 . But by differential crypto analysis, it has been proved that the key can be broken in 2 47 combinations of known plain texts. By linear crypto analysis it has been proved that, it could be broken by 2 41 combinations of plain text. The DES algorithm is a basic building block for providing data security. To apply DES in a variety of applications, four modes of operations have been defined. These four models are intended to cover all possible applications of encryption for which DES could be used. They involve using a initialization vector being used along with key to provided different cipher text blocks. 2.1.1.1.1 Electronic Code Book (ECB) mode: ECB mode divides the plaintext into blocks m1, m2, , mn, and computes the cipher text ci = Ei(mi). This mode is vulnerable to many attacks and is not recommended for use in any protocols. Chief among its defects is its vulnerability to splicing attacks, in which encrypted blocks from one message are replaced with encrypted blocks from another. 2.1.1.1.2 Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode: CBC mode remedies some of the problems of ECB mode by using an initialization vector and chaining the input of one encryption into the next. CBC mode starts with an initialization vector iv and XORs a value with the plaintext that is the input to each encryption. So, c1 = Ek(iv XOR m1) and ci = Ek(ci-1 XOR mi). If a unique iv is used, then no splicing attacks can be performed, since each block depends on all previous blocks along with the initialization vector. The iv is a good example of a nonce that needs to satisfy Uniqueness but not Unpredictability. 2.1.1.1.3 Cipher Feed-Back (CFB) mode: CFB mode moves the XOR of CBC mode to the output of the encryption. In other words, the cipher text c1 = p1 XOR Sj(E(IV)). This mode then suffers from failures of Non-Malleability, at least locally to every block, but changes to ciphertext do not propagate very far, since each block of ciphertext is used independently to XOR against a given block to get the plaintext. These failures can be seen in the following example, in which a message m = m1 m2 mn is divided into n blocks, and encrypted with an iv under CFB mode to c1 c2 cn. Suppose an adversary substitutes c2 for c2. Then, in decryption, m1 = Ek(iv) XOR c1, which is correct, but m2 = Ek(c1) XOR c2, which means that m2 = m2 XOR c2 XOR c2, since m2 = Ek(c1) XOR c2. Thus, in m2, the adversary can flip any bits of its choice. Then m3 = Ek(c2) XOR c3, which should lead to random looking message not under the adversarys control, since the encryption of c2 should look random. But m4 = Ek(c3) XOR c4 and thereafter the decryption is correct. 2.1.1.1.4 Output Feed-Back (OFB) mode OFB mode modifies CFB mode to feed back the output of the encryption function to the encryption function without XOR-ing the cipher text. 2.1.1.2 Triple DES: Given the potential vulnerability of DES to brute force attack, a new mechanism is adopted which uses multiple encryptions with DES and multiple keys. The simplest form of multiple encryptions has two encryption stages and two keys. The limitation with this mechanism is it is susceptible to meet in the middle attack. An obvious counter to meet in the middle attack and reducing the cost of increasing the key length, a triple encryption method is used, which considers only two keys with encryption with the first key, decryption with the second key and fallowed by encryption with the first key. Triple DES is a relatively popular alternative to DES and has been adopted for use in key management standards. 2.1.1.3 Homomorphic DES: A variant of DES called a homophonic DES [7] is considered. The DES algorithm is strengthened by adding some random bits into the plaintext, which are placed in particular positions to maximize diffusion, and to resist differential attack. Differential attack makes use of the exclusive-or homophonic DES. In this new scheme, some random estimated bits are added to the plaintext. This increases the certain plaintext difference with respect to the cipher text. A homophonic DES is a variant of DES that map search plaintext to one of many cipher texts (for a given key). In homophonic DES a desired difference pattern with the cipher text will be suggested with some key values including the correct one, oppositely wrong pairs of cipher text. For a difference pattern which 56-bit plaintext to a 64-bit cipher text using a 56-bit key. In this scheme, eight random bits are placed in specific positions of the 64-bit input data block to maximize diffusion. For example, the random bits in HDESS are the bit- positions 25, 27, 29, 31, 57, 59, 61 and 63. In this algorithm, after the initial permutation and expansion permutation in the first round, these eight random bits will spread to bits 2, 6, 8, 12, 14, 18, 20, 24, 26, 30, 32, 36, 38,42,44,48 of the 48-bit input block to the S-boxes and will affect the output of all the S-boxes. The 48 expanded bits must be exclusive-or’d with some key before proceeding to the S-boxes, thus two input bits into the S-boxes derived from the same random bit may have different values. This says that the random bits do not regularize the input to the S-boxes, that is, the property of confusion does not reduce while we try to maximize diffusion. The decryption of the homophonic DES is similar to the decryption of DES. The only difference is that eight random bits must be removed to get the original plaintext (56 bits). A homophonic DES can easily be transformed into a triple-encryption version by concatenating a DES decryption and a DES encryption after the homophonic DES. Security analysis: Thus there is a probability of 1/256 between a pair of texts. The differential crypto analysis is also difficult on this mechanism. The diffusion of bits is also more in this mode. Thus this mechanism provides some probabilistic features to DES algorithm which makes it stronger from differential and linear crypto analysis. 2.1.1.4 AES: The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) was chosen in 2001. AES is also an iterated block cipher, with 10, 12, or 14 rounds for key sizes 128, 192, and 256 bits, respectively. AES provides high performance symmetric key encryption and decryption. 2.1.1.5 Dynamic substitution: An apparently new cryptographic mechanism [34] which can be described as dynamic substitution is discussed in the fallowing topic. Although structurally similar to simple substitution, dynamic substitution has a second data input which acts to re-arrange the contents of the substitution table. The mechanism combines two data sources into a complex result; under appropriate conditions, a related inverse mechanism can then extract one of the data sources from the result. A dynamic substitution combiner can directly replace the exclusive-OR combiner used in Vernam stream ciphers. The various techniques used in Vernam ciphers can also be applied to dynamic substitution; any cryptographic advantage is thus due to the additional strength of the new combiner. 2.1.1.5.1 The Vernam Cipher: A Vernam cipher maps plaintext data with a pseudo-random sequence to generate cipher text. Since each ciphertext element from a Vernam combiner is the (mod 2) sum of two unknown values, the plaintext data is supposed to be safe. But this mode is susceptive to several cryptanalytic attacks, including known plain text and cipher text attacks. And if the confusion sequence can be penetrated and reproduced, the cipher is broken. Similarly, if the same confusion sequence is ever re-used, and the overlap identified, it becomes simple to break that section of the cipher. 2.1.1.5.2 Cryptographic Combiners: An alternate approach to the design of a secure stream cipher is to seek combining functions which can resist attack; such functions would act to hide the pseudo-random sequence from analysis. The mechanism of this work is a new combining function which extends the weak classical concept of simple substitution into a stronger form suitable for computer cryptography. 2.1.1.5.3 Substitution Ciphers: In simple substitution ciphers each plain text character is replaced with fixed cipher text character. But this mechanism is weak from statistical analysis methods where by considering the rules of the language, the cipher can be broken. This work is concerned with the cryptographic strengthening of the fundamental substitution operation through dynamic changes to a substitution table. The substitution table can be represented as a function of not only input data but also a random sequence. This combination gives a cryptographic combining function; such a function may be used to combine plaintext data with a pseudo-random sequence to generate enciphered data. 2.1.1.5.4 Dynamic Substitution: A simple substitution table supported with combining function gives the idea of dynamic substitution. A substitution table is used to translate each data value into an enciphered value. But after each substitution, the table is re-ordered. At a minimum, it makes sense to exchange the just-used substitution value with some entry in the table selected at random. This generally changes the just-used substitution value to help prevent analysis, and yet retains the existence of an inverse, so that the cipher can be deciphered. 2.1.1.5.5 Black Box Analysis: Dynamic substitution may be considered to be a black box, with two input ports Data In and Random In, and one output port Combiner Out. In the simple version, each data path has similar width; evidently the mechanism inside the box in some way combines the two input streams to produce the output stream. It seems reasonable to analyze the output statistically, for various input streams. 2.1.1.5.6 Polyalphabetic Dynamic Substitution: A means to defend to known-plaintext and chosen-plaintext attacks would be to use multiple different dynamic substitution maps and to select between them using a hidden pseudo-random sequence. Thus the dynamic substitution if free from statistical attacks where each character of plain text is replaced with multiple characters of cipher text which makes the mechanism robust. 2.1.1.5.7 Internal State: Dynamic substitution contains internal data which after initialization is continuously re-ordered as a consequence of both incoming data streams; thus, the internal state is a function of initialization and all subsequent data and confusion values. The changing internal state of dynamic substitution provides necessary security to the data streams. Thus dynamic substitution provides a probabilistic nature to the enciphering mechanism. The limitation with this scheme is, not only different dynamic substitution tables has to be maintained but also the pseudo random sequence which selects between these dynamic substitution tables has to be shared between sender and receiver. 2.1.1.6 Nonces A nonce [29] is a bit string that satisfies Uniqueness, which means that it has not occurred before in a given run of a protocol. Nonces might also satisfy Unpredictability, which effectively requires pseudo-randomness: no adversary can predict the next nonce that will be chosen by any principal. There are several common sources of nonces like counters, time slots and so on. 2.1.1.6.1 Nonce Based Encryption: In this work a different formalization for symmetric encryption is envisaged. The encryption algorithm is made to be a deterministic function, but it is supported with initialization vector (IV). Efficiency of the user is made success of this mode. The IV is a nonce like value, used at most once within a session. Since it is used at most once having any sort of crypto analysis is practically not possible which provides sufficient security. 2.1.1.7 One-Time Pad Encryption One more encryption mechanism for providing security to data is one time pad [13] encryption. The functions are computed as follows: A and B agree on a random number k that is as long as the message they later want to send. Ek(x) = x XOR k Dk(x) = x XOR k Note that since k is chosen at random and not known to an adversary, the output of this scheme is indistinguishable to an adversary from a random number. But it suffers from several limitations. It is susceptible to chosen plain text and chosen cipher text attacks. Again the limitation is here is sharing of one time keys by the participating parties of the encryption scheme. As a new key is always used for encryption, a continuous sharing of key mechanism has to be employed by the participating parties. 2.1.2 Stream ciphers Unlike block ciphers, stream ciphers [14] (such as RC4) produce a pseudo-random sequence of bits that are then combined with the message to give an encryption. Since the combining operation is often XOR, naive implementations of these schemes can be vulnerable to the sort of bit-flipping attacks on Non-Malleability. Two types of stream ciphers exist: synchronous, in which state is kept by the encryption algorithm but is not correlated with the plaintext or cipher text, and self synchronizing, in which some information from the plaintext or cipher text is used to inform the operation of the cipher. Ronald Rivest of RSA developed the RC4 algorithm, which is a shared key stream cipher algorithm requiring a secure exchange of a shared key. The algorithm is used identically for encryption and decryption as the data stream is simply XORed with the generated key sequence. The algorithm is serial as it requires successive exchanges of state entries based on the key sequence. Hence implementations can be very computationally intensive. In the algorithm the key stream is completely independent of the plaintext used. An 8 * 8 S-Box (S0 S255), where each of the entries is a permutation of the numbers 0 to 255, and the permutation is a function of the variable length key. There are two counters i, and j, both initialized to 0 used in the algorithm. 2.1.2.1.1 Algorithm Features: 1.It uses a variable length key from 1 to 256 bytes to initialize a 256-byte state table. The state table is used for subsequent generation of pseudo-random bytes and then to generate a pseudo-random stream which is XORed with the plaintext to give the cipher text. Each element in the state table is swapped at least once. 2. The key is often limited to 40 bits, because of export restrictions but it is sometimes used as a 128 bit key. It has the capability of using keys between 1 and 2048 bits. RC4 is used in many commercial software packages such as Lotus Notes and Oracle Secure. 3. The algorithm works in two phases, key setup and ciphering. During a N-bit key setup (N being your key length), the encryption key is used to generate an encrypting variable using two arrays, state and key, and N-number of mixing operations. These mixing operations consist of swapping bytes, modulo operations, and other formulas. 2.1.2.1.2 Algorithm Strengths: The difficulty of knowing which location in the table is used to select each value in the sequence. A particular RC4 Algorithm key can be used only once and Encryption is about 10 times faster than DES. Algorithm Weakness: One in every 256 keys can be a weak key. These keys are identified by cryptanalysis that is able to find circumstances under which one of more generated bytes are strongly correlated with a few bytes of the key. Thus some symmetric encryption algorithms have been discussed in this chapter. They varies from block ciphers like DES, Triple DES, Homomorphic DES to stream ciphers like RC4. To the symmetric encryption mechanisms concepts like application of Nounce and dynamic substitution are discussed which provides randomness to the encryption mechanism. This probabilistic nature to the encryption mechanism provides sufficient strength to the algorithms against Chosen Cipher text attacks(CCA). The security with all these mechanisms lies with proper sharing of keys among the different participating parties. 2.1.3 Adoptability of some mathematical functions in Cryptography: Sign Function: [26,27] This function when applied on when applied on a matrix of values, converts all the positive values to 1, negative values to -1 zero with 0. The advantage of using this function in cryptography is it cannot be a reversible process ie we cannot get back to the original matrix by applying a reverse process. Modular Arithmetic: One more function that is widely used in cryptography is modular arithmetic of a number with a base value. It will generate the remainder of a number with respect to the base value. This function is widely used in public key cryptography. 2.2 Public-Key Encryption The most commonly used implementations of public-key [13,14] encryption are based on algorithms patented by RSA Data Security. Therefore, this section describes the RSA approach to public-key encryption. Public-key encryption (also called asymmetric encryption) involves a pair of keys a public key and a private key, used for security authentication of data. Each public key is published, and the corresponding private key is kept secret. Data encrypted with one key can be decrypted only with other key. The scheme shown in Figure 1.2 says public key is distributed and encryption being done using this key. In general, to send encrypted data, one encrypt’s the data with the receiver’s public key, and the person receiving the encrypted data decrypts it with his private key. Compared with symmetric-key encryption, public-key encryption requires more computation and is therefore not always appropriate for large amounts of data. However, a combination of symmetric Asymmetric schemes can be used in real time environment. This is the approach used by the SSL protocol. As it happens, the reverse of the scheme shown in Figure 1.2 also works: data encrypted with one’s private key can be decrypted only with his public key. This may not be an interesting way to encrypt important data, however, because it means that anyone with receiver’s public key, which is by definition published, could decipher the data. And also the important requirement with data transfer is authentication of data which is supported with Asymmetric encryption schemes, which is an important requirement for electronic commerce and other commercial applications of cryptography. 2.2.1 Key Length and Encryption Strength: In general, the strength of encryption algorithm depends on difficulty in getting the key, which in turn depends on both the cipher used and the length of the key. For the RSA cipher, the strength depends on the difficulty of factoring large numbers, which is a well-known mathematical problem.Encryption strength is often described in terms of the length of the keys used to perform the encryption, means the more the length of the key, the more the strength. Key length is measured in bits. For example, a RC4 symmetric-key cipher with key length of 128 bits supported by SSL provide significantly better cryptographic protection than 40-bit keys for use with the same cipher. It means 128-bit RC4 encryption is 3 x 1026 times stronger than 40-bit RC4 encryption. Different encryption algorithms require variable key lengths to achieve the same level of encryption strength. Other ciphers, such as those used for symmetric key encryption, can use all possible values for a key of a given length, rather than a subset of those values. Thus a 128-bit key for use with a symmetric-key encryption cipher would provide stronger encryption than a 128-bit key for use with the RSA public-key encryption cipher. This says that a symmetric encryption algorithm with a key length of 56 bits achieve a equal security to Asymmetric encryption algorithm with a key length of 512 bits, 2.2.2 RSA Key Generation Algorithm Two large prime numbers are considered. Let them be p,q. Calculate n = pq and (φ) phi = (p-1)(q-1). Select e, such that 1 Calculate d, such that ed ≠¡ 1 (mod phi). One key is (n, e) and the other key is (n, d). The values of p, q, and phi should also be kept secret. n is known as the modulus. e is known as the public key. d is known as the secret key. Encryption Sender A does the following:- Get the recipient Bs public key (n, e). Identify the plaintext message as a positive integer m. Calculate the ciphertext c = m^e mod n. Transmits the ciphertext c to receiver B. Decryption Recipient B does the following:- Consider his own private key (n, d) to compute the plain text m = c^d mod n. Convert the integer to plain text form. 2.2.3 Digital signing Sender A does the following:- This concept can also be used in digital signing as well. The message to be transmitted is converted to some message digest form. This message digest is converted to encryption form using his private key. This encrypted message digest is transmitted to receiver. Signature verification Recipient B does the following:- Using the sender’s public key, the received message digest is decrypted. From the received message, the receiver independently computes the message digest of the information that has been signed. If both message digests are identical, the signature is valid. Compared with symmetric-key encryption, public-key encryption provides authentication security to the data transmitted but requires more computation and is therefore not always appropriate for large amounts of data. 2.3. Probabilistic encryption schemes In public key encryption there is always a possibility of some information being leaked out. Because a crypto analyst can always encrypt random messages with a public key, he can get some information. Not a whole of information is to be gained here, but there are potential problems with allowing a crypto analyst to encrypt random messages with public key. Some information is leaked out every time to the crypto analyst, he encrypts a message. With probabilistic encryption algorithms [6,11], a crypto analyst can no longer encrypt random plain texts looking for correct cipher text. Since multiple cipher texts will be developed for one plain text, even if he decrypts the message to plain text, he does not know how far he had guessed the message correctly. To illustrate, assume a crypto analyst has a certain cipher text ci. Even if he guesses message correctly, when he encrypts message the result will be completely different cj. He cannot compare ci and cj and so cannot know that he has guessed the message correctly. Under this scheme, different cipher texts will be formed for one plain text. Also the cipher text will always be larger than plain text. This develops the concept of multiple cipher texts for one plain text. This concept makes crypto analysis difficult to apply on plain text and cipher text pairs. An encryption scheme consists of three algorithms: The encryption algorithm transforms plaintexts into cipher texts while the decryption algorithm converts cipher texts back into plaintexts. A third algorithm, called the key generator, creates pairs of keys: an encryption key, input to the encryption algorithm, and a related decryption key needed to decrypt. The encryption key relates encryptions to the decryption key. The key generator is considered to be a probabilistic algorithm, which prevents an adversary from simply running the key generator to get the decryption key for an intercepted message. The following concept is crucial to probabilistic cryptography: 2.3.1 Definition [Probabilistic Algorithm]: A probabilistic algorithm [11] is an algorithm with an additional command RANDOM that returns â€Å"0† or â€Å"1†, each with probability 1/2. In the literature, these random choices are often referred to as coin flips. 2.3.1.1 Chosen Cipher Text Attack: In the simplest attack model, known as Chosen Plaintext Attack (CPA) [5], the adversary has access to a machine that will perform arbitrary encryptions but will not reveal the shared key. This machine corresponds intuitively to being able to see many encryptions of many messages before trying to decrypt a new message. In this case, Semantic Security requires that it be computationally hard for any adversary to distinguish an encryption Ek(m) from Ek(m) for two arbitrarily chosen messages m and m. Distinguishing these encryptions should be hard even if the adversary can request encryptions of arbitrary messages. Note that this property cannot be satisfied if the encryption function is deterministic! In this case, the adversary can simply request an encryption of m and an encryption of m and compare them. This is a point that one should all remember when implementing systems: encrypting under a deterministic function with no randomness in the input does not provide Semantic Security. O ne more crypto analytical model is Chosen Cipher text Attack (CCA) Model. Under the CCA model, an adversary has access to an encryption and a decryption machine and must perform the same task of distinguishing encryptions of two messages of its choice. First, the adversary is allowed to interact with the encryption and decryption services and choose the pair of messages. After it has chosen the messages, however, it only has access to an encryption machine. An advancement to CCA Model is Chosen Cipher text Attack 2 (CCA2). CCA2 security has the same model as CCA security, except that the adversary retains access to the decryption machine after choosing the two messages. To keep this property from being trivially violated, we require that the adversary not be able to decrypt the cipher text it is given to analyze. To make these concepts of CCA CCA2 adoptable in real time environment, recently Canetti, Krawczyk and Nielsen defined the notion of replayable adaptive chosen ciphertext attack [5] secure encryption. Essentially a cryptosystem that is RCCA secure has full CCA2 security except for the little detail that it may be possible to modify a ciphertext into another ciphertext containing the s

Pragmatism Vs. Idealism (a Man :: essays research papers

Morality is often overpowered by materialistic pursuits. In â€Å"A Man for All Seasons†,Robert Bolt shows the corruption of those who put self interest above all other values. His use of such characters as Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich, Chapuys and Wolsey help convey this corruption. There is yet another character who is a pragmatist that Bolt successfully represents. Thomas More is an idealist as well as a pragmatist, for he is prepared to give up everything for his beliefs and takes all precautions possible to make his case â€Å"watertight†. It is through this pragmatism and idealism that Robert Bolt shows the corruption of the times.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas More believed in his ideals to such an extent that he was prepared to sacrifice his life for them, if the need arrived. He was a firm believer in the separation of Church and State. When the King tried to start the reformation of England and the Church by a simple Act of Parliament called the Act of Supremacy, Thomas refused to sign it. He believed that the indictment of the King was â€Å"grounded in an Act of Parliament which is directly repugnant to law of God. The King in Parliament cannot bestow he Supremacy of the Church because it is a Spiritual Supremacy! And more to this the immunity of the Church is promised both in Magna Carta and the Kings own Coronation Oath!†(Bolt, p. 92) The marriage was yet another reason why More refused to sign the Act. He knew that if he signed it then he would accept the King as the Supreme Head of Church and thus give the King the power to â€Å"dispense with the dispensation† which to him was against his morals and religion. Of course the marriage was associated with other things -attack on the abbeys, the whole Reformation policy-to which More was violently opposed. When told by Norfolk that his parish attire is a disrespect to the King and his office. More replies that â€Å"the service of God is not a dishonor to any office†(Bolt, p.26) Even though he loves the King to death as proved by Mores loyalty towards him, he values his morality and religion more. For his conscience is a â€Å"little area where I must rule myself†(Bolt,p.34). His position is perfectly described in his belief that â€Å"when statesmen forsake their own private conscience for the sake of their public duties... they lead their country by a short route to chaos.

History of Childhood

The history of childhood is a subject of controversy. Since serious historical investigation began into this area in the late 1960s, historians have increasingly divided into two contrasting camps of opinion, those advocating â€Å"continuity† in child rearing practices, and those emphasising â€Å"change†. As there is little evidence of what childhood was really like in the past, it is incredibly difficult for historians to reconstruct the life of a child, much more the   â€Å"experience† of being a child. In so many ways, the history of childhood is a history that slips through our fingers. Few Parents have left written records of how they reared their children, and fewer still children have left us their story. It is largely because of this lack of evidence, and because the evidence that does remain – advice literature, journals and letters, are so open to differing interpretations, that historians have divided over major issues such as whether children were loved and wanted in the past, the way parents viewed their children, and the treatment they received. The first major works into the history of childhood were those of Philippe Aries and Lloyd De Mause,  Centuries of Childhood, and  The History of Childhood  respectfully. Both historians took a â€Å"progressive† approach to history, and concluded that the treatment of children by their parents and society have improved considerably throughout the centuries. Both paint a very negative image of childhood, and family life in the past. Lloyd De Mause went as far as saying that;   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. †Ã‚  (1)   believing that; â€Å"The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized, and sexually abused†. 2)   Aries concluded that there was no concept of childhood as a state   different to adulthood in these centuries, and therefore, even if parents did feel affection for their offspring, they did not fully understand how to respond to the emotional needs of their children. This argument gained further weight with the mammoth work of Lawrence Stone on the history of the family and family relationships in the early modern period,  The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800. Stone too focused on the â€Å"evolution† of the amily through these three centuries, arguing that the family changed from being of an â€Å"open lineage† structure in which family relationships were formal and repressed, to the â€Å"domesticated nuclear family†, which resulted in â€Å"affective individualism†. In the early 1980's, Linda Pollock in her influential, yet highly controversial work,  Forgotten Children : Parent – child Relations 1500-1900, harshly criticised all the arguments made by Aries, de Mause and Stone. From her intensive study of over four hundred diaries and journals, she argued that childhood experiences were not as grim as they suggest it was. She strongly denies that there were any fundamental changes in the way parents viewed or reared their children in this period;   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The texts reveal no significant change in the quality of parental care given to, or the amount of affection felt for infants for the period 1500-1900†. (3)   Pollock's work has received support from Rosemary O'Day and Mary Abbot, who both deny that childhood â€Å"evolved† considerably in this period. In recent years, it is this approach that is beginning to predominate, but Pollock et al are not without their critics. Therefore, as there are two so very different approaches to the history of childhood in the early modern period, attempting to determine just how methods of child rearing did change in the past is fraught with difficulty. In order to determine how something has changed, it is necessary to determine what it changed from, and there is no consensus of opinion as to how parents reared their children in this period. However, it is perhaps important to emphasise that it is not so much the structure of childhood that is difficult to assess, in the sense of describing what the children actually did, but the attitudes and values of the parents. It is difficult to determine whether these changed, if they did how they changed, and why they changed, and the outcome of these changes. Between 1500 and 1700, the actual structure of childhood changed little. In this pre-industrial age, England was largely agricultural. Amongst the poor, children were put to work at early ages on the farm, sowing seeds, chasing birds, and other rather unstrenuous activities. If they could not be made useful on the family's own farm, then they would be put to work elsewhere. This was a characteristic of both the town and the country, although in the towns, children were put to work a year to eighteen months earlier. This applied to both sexes, although boys were more likely to be put to work earlier, and girls to stay home a little longer to help their mother. Children who could be spared from the farm, or whose wages would not be missed, were often put to school, to receive a form of elementary education which would help them acquire the necessary literacy and arithmetic they would need in life. Most of these children, especially the girls, remained in school only for a short period, and would then be expected to work to help their family financially. Some children never attended school, but were taught by their mothers at home. Amongst the wealthier social groups, boys, and to a lesser extent girls, would be provided with a more rigid and higher standard education from the age of six or seven upwards. This could take the form of private tuition, a school education, or education in someone else's house. It has been argued by Stone, Aries and De Mause, that there was a growing awareness of childhood as a state different to adult hood in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to them, society was beginning to appreciate that children were not miniature adults, but were at a substantially lower level of maturity, and so had distinct needs from adults – protection, love and nurturing. Society was now becoming more aware of the importance of parental socialisation, that it was socialisation that largely determined the kind of adult a child would eventually become. Lawrence Stone and J. H. Plumb believe the emergence of this new characteristic can be traced in the artistic development of the period. Stone argues that in the middle ages, children were invariably portrayed as miniature adults in paintings, without any childish characteristics. However, into the sixteenth century, images of children began to acquire a distinct identity, and childish appearance. Plumb argues that from the late seventeenth century onwards, children can be seen playing, sketching and amusing themselves in portraits, which he suggests shows there was a definite concept of childhood emerging in this period. He also argues that the increasing availability of toys and literature especially aimed for children, shows a greater understanding and appreciation of childhood. It is certainly possible that children were seen in a different light in this period, considering the influence of the Renaissance and the Reformation on ideologies(an explanation that Stone touches upon and will be discussed in more detail later), but the evidence employed by both Stone and Plumb needs to be used with supreme caution. Art and literature may reflect to a certain degree the alues and attitudes of a given society, but they are also limited by the technological understandings of the age. It could be argued that the change in the portrayal of children was due entirely to the Renaissance influence on physical realism in portraits, and the development of superior artistic skills as a consequence. Also, as artists became more familiar with painting the human form, they may have been more comfortable in exploring o ther forms of presentation, moving away from the stiffness of some early portraits, to the more naturalistic settings of the eighteenth century. Similarly, the commercial availability of toys and children's literature may have been the product of a growing materialistic and technological world, not an indication of a greater awareness of childhood. Just because toys were not commercially available in the past does not mean that the need for children to play was not appreciated. Parents may have manually made toys for their children. Indeed, Linda Pollock argues that imaginative play was common through out this period. The literary development could likewise be due to the growing influence of the printing press which opened up new avenues for literature. There is no conclusive evidence that there was an increase in the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"concept of childhood†Ã‚  in this period. Linda Pollock, and Rosemary O'Day, strongly deny that there was, arguing that parents had always been†aware that childhood was different in kind from adulthood. †Ã‚   (4) Stone et al have argued that once society became aware that childhood was a distinct state from adulthood, this effected the relationship between parents and children. They argue that now parents were aware of the needs of children, they were more equipped to respond to them, and give their children the care and protection they so desperately needed. Both Ralph Houlbrooke and Lawrence Stone argue that during the course of the seventeenth centuries, families became more openly affectionate. They see the decline in observances such as the â€Å"blessing† as evidence of a more loving family relationship. The â€Å"blessing† was considered to be important in what it symbolised about the inferiority of children to adults. Children were expected to seek their parent's blessing every morning and night. Even in adulthood, children were expected to ask for this blessing every so often. There were also other customs to remind children of the respect, duty and obedience they owed their parents. Boys for example, were expected to take off their hats in their parent's presence, and allegedly girls were expected to kneel before their mother. The Countess of Falkland for example, knelt before her mother even in adulthood, and even though she had obtained a higher social status than her mother through marriage. Ralph Houlbrooke argues that in the seventeenth century such practises were declining. The â€Å"blessing† he says was replaced with a â€Å"goodnight kiss†, and the other customs relaxed. He believes that the increased intimacy in letters between parents and children in the seventeenth century are firm evidence of a growing affection and intimacy. He claims that parents were now using phrases such as â€Å"my dear child† or â€Å"my darling†, instead of the colder ones of â€Å"child† or â€Å"son, daughter†. However, again this evidence needs to be treated with caution. In this period, society was becoming increasingly literate, especially amongst the wealthier social groups, and a greater depth of education may have meant that individuals were now able to express themselves easier. It must also be remembered that the English language itself was going through a transition at this time, greatly benefitting from the Renaissance emphasis on the vernacular. Lawrence Stone sees the decline in the customs of swaddling and wet-nursing from the late seventeenth century and particularly into the eighteenth, as a further indication of a growing affection. However, again, this depends on interpretation. It was not for any abusive or oppressive reason that parents swaddled their children, but because they genuinely believed that it was for the child's benefit, in that it prevented the child's limbs from growing crooked and deformed. Arguably the decline of this practice was due to an increased scientific understanding of the human body, rather than an increase in parental affection towards children. Also there is no solid evidence that wet-nursing declined in the seventeenth century. Indeed, for much of the eighteenth century, wet-nursing continued amongst the nobility and gentry. Admittedly it was increasingly the subject of attack, as puritans in particular believed that all mothers should breast feed their own children, but that this practise continued in aristocratic circles (it had never really been a custom amongst the poor) well into the nineteenth century, it cannot be used to illustrate a growing affection between mothers and children. Lawrence Stone argues that one of the reasons why parents and children were emotionally distant in the early part of this period, was ecause of the high infant mortality rate. He argues that parents were reluctant to invest love and care in their children, because of the pain losing them would cause. However, Linda Pollock identifies a flaw in his thesis. She argues that if this was the case, then one would expect the indifference towards children to have prevailed as long as the death rate. Stone puts forward that parents were becoming closer to their children in the late seventeenth century, where for some pars of the country such as Devon, more children were dying in this period than had done in the sixteenth century. Pollock argues that contrary to reducing parental emotional investment, the high death rate only served to heighten their anxiety in times of illness, and increase their level of care. However, Lawrence Stone does not believe that all the consequences of a growing awareness of childhood as a distinct state from adulthood, had a positive effect on the relationship between parents and children. He suggests that with the awareness that behaviour depended on discipline, parents took their duty as disciplinarians more seriously. He claims that whipping and flogging now became common place in an attempt to instil morality in their children. He also attributes this development to the Protestant Reformation. He argues that Protestantism emphasised the notion of Original sin, and contrary to Catholicism, did not advocated that the salvation of children could be obtained by baptism. Protestants argued that faith alone determined salvation, and therefore, for a child to be saved, faith was essential. This led to a decline in the importance of baptism, and increasingly parents delayed the ceremony, for days, weeks, or even months. There was now added pressure on parents to ensure that their children fully comprehended the basics of Christianity, especially their own sinfulness, and need for repentance and salvation. This possibly increased the importance of the mother as teacher, and arguably created the potential for a greater intimacy between mother and child as they spent more quality time together. However, Sather argues that following the Reformation, the relationship between parents and children became characterised by   harshness and cruelty, as physical punishment became the norm, especially amongst Puritans. He who spareth the rod hateth his son† was universally repeated. Undoubtedly this theoretically sets the scene for a darkening of childhood experience. However, although the Reformation may have encouraged a harsher disciplinary role of the parents, as always, it is necessary to bear in mind that theory does not always convert into practise successfully. It is certainly possible that purit ans treated their children harshly in this period, tyring to get them to conform to their notions of godliness, but it must be remembered that for most of this period puritans were a minority, and a rather unpopular one at that. It was they who predominantly wrote the â€Å"conduct-books†, advising parents on how to rear their children, and although some historians such as Stone have taken their contents as evidence of a harsh attitude towards children, it is necessary to remember that   conduct books state how things ought to be, not how they are. Admittedly there were parents who did physically punish their children. John Aubrey, a contemporary of the seventeenth century, stated that harsh physical correction was rife, and that â€Å"the child perfectly hated the sight of his parents as the slave his torturer†, but this is highly debatable. It is likely that if children were abused in this period, the abuse was more likely to be inflicted by the children's employers who abused their powerful positions. There are numerous accounts of young boys and girls having been physically abused by their masters. However, it is significant that many parents on discovering this abuse, issued a suit against the guilty person, suggesting that such treatment was far from socially acceptable. Parents wanted their children corrected, and arguably would not have opposed to a physical chastisement if essential, but did not want, or approve, of excessive correction. That physical punishment existed, cannot be taken as evidence of increased parental harshness towards children. It is clear from several journals that parents who did feel the need to physically punish their children, were often deeply troubled by the incident, and if possible, preferred not to inflict physical pain on their child. Also, there is little evidence for Stone's theory that parents saw their children as innately evil, and thus needed excessive disciplining. Indeed, considering that writers such as Thomas Gataker had to continuously press the point that it was â€Å"an idle concept† to suppose that â€Å"religion and godlinesse is not for children†, suggests that most parents did not accept the belief, even if it was widespread amongst puritans. In all likelihood, most parents took the view of John Locke, that children were morally neutral, and that it was up to them by both love and appropriate correction, to bring out the good in their nature. Another change which it has been argued came about partly because of the Reformation, was the â€Å"educational revolution† of the sixteenth century. Certainly as Protestantism was the religion of the â€Å"word† both printed and preached, a higher degree of literacy was needed to read the Scriptures, and intellectual training in order for the people to comprehend doctrinal issues. Also, following the Dissolution of the monasteries and chantries, the educational provision made by these institutions ceased. Thus, if children were to be educated, schools had to be refounded, which is largely what happened in the reign of Edward the Sixth. This movement was also due to the Renaissance, which increased the value of education, especially amongst the gentry. With the Renaissance came ideals of gentility, advocated by Castiglione and Thomas Elyot. Education was seen as a prime requisite of gentility, for not only did it cultivate the mind, but it distinguished gentle persons above the poor, and justified their privileged positions. Not surprisingly then, with such a high regard being attached to education, rich parents, who perhaps were not entirely literate themselves at the beginning of this period, increasingly ensured that their sons had a decent education. Therefore, towards the end of the sixteenth, and especially into the seventeenth century, it became common for the wealthy to send their sons to the new grammar schools. If they were particularly wealthy, they would employ a tutor steeped in classical knowledge to educate their sons. That parents sent there children away from home at early ages has been taken as evidence of their indifference, but in all likelihood, when parents sent their children away, they believed it was in the best interests of the child. Ilana Ben-Amos argues that parents would only part with their children when it was absolutely essential. In the   early seventeenth century for example, it was only after James Fretwell, who was then only four years old, came home weeping because he could not manage the distance between Sandal and Yorkshire every day, that his father out of concern for his welfare put him to lodge with a widow in Sandal. Even then, the child came home on Saturdays. It can also be seen that attitudes towards female education amongst the wealthy also changed in this period. In the Renaissance years, it is arguable that the education of women was encouraged. Thomas More himself said that â€Å"I do not see why learning ay not equally agree with both sexes†, and the period produced a number of learned women; Mary and Elizabeth Tudor, Lady Jane Grey, and even Mary Stuart. Antonia Fraser argues that during Elizabeth's reign, there was a silent pressure on wealthy men to have their daughters educated. If they were to attend court without having some knowledge of Latin and the Classics, they would comp are unfavourably with the intellect and knowledge of the Queen, and would thus not create a favourable impression on the men they were expected to â€Å"secure†. Also, with there being a female monarch who was renowned as a scholar, it would be rather unmet to press the point that such a sphere was a man's preserve. However, with the Queen's death in 1603, and the accession of a man, such opinions were able to surface, and there was an increasing desire to exclude females from learning Latin and the classics. This was given impetus by the attitude of the sovereign himself. When King James was presented with a learned woman, he rather sarcastically remarked, â€Å"but can shee spin ? â€Å". This gave no incentive for the great families of England to subject their daughters to an expensive classical education, which many believed they had not the intellectual capacity to understand, and anyway would serve them no useful purpose in life. As the seventeenth century wore on, the difference in the educational expectations of the sexes became more marked. Girls were virtually excluded from grammar schools, and the notion of the â€Å"accomplished woman†, which was to play such a prominent part in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, gained a whole new lease of life. Parents were now encouraged to have their daughters educated in those subjects deemed suitable for girls – sewing, knitting, music, and French. Over the course of the seventeenth century, schools for girls flourished, and were dedicated to educating girls in these increasingly regarded female traits. Stone argues that the end of the seventeenth century saw a more humane treatment of children being adopted, but arguably this was not the case for aristocratic girls. Physical deportment was becoming increasingly important. The corset, which had long been in existence, now became regarded as essential, and the eighteenth century saw the development of other techniques to help create the perfect figure, such as stocks and backboards. Stone argues that one of the signs of a growing affection between parents and children, was the decline of parental control of their children's marriages, but if this was the case with boys, the marriage of girls was still often tightly controlled. In concluding then, it can be seen that trying to determine to what extent there were important changes in the way that children were reared in this period, is fraught with difficulty. The conclusion drawn, depends to a large degree on the approach adopted. Those historians such as Linda Pollock who advocate â€Å"continuity†, would argue that there were no fundamental changes in the way that parents treated and reared their children in this   who advocate â€Å"change†, would argue that there were important changes in these years. They would argue that there was a growing intimacy and affection between parents and children, a growing concern for the latter's welfare, and although the Reformation initially introduced a period of increased severity, the general trend was the improvement of the treatment of children. Certainly there were changes. There was an increased importance placed on education; the increasing segregation of male and female spheres within education; children were maintained at school longer; apprenticeships were lasting longer; there was an increase in the importance of early religious instruction; child baptism lost it's immediate   significance; swaddling becoming less widely used, and into the eighteenth century there was a decline in the practice of wet nursing. However, these changes are largely external changes. They tell us little about the way the â€Å"experience† of child rearing changed, if it did, during this period. Arguably, the more fundamental aspects of child-rearing, such as whether or not there was an emergence of a â€Å"concept of childhood† in this period, whether there was a growing intimacy between parents and children, and whether or not parental discipline became more severe, can only be speculated upon.

Finding a Job for English Learners

Finding a Job for English Learners Understanding your potential employer can help you get the job you are looking for. This section focuses on developing interviewing skills that will help you prepare for a job interview in an English speaking country. The Personnel Department The personnel department is responsible for hiring the best possible candidate for an open position. Often hundreds of applicants apply for an open position. In order to save time, the personnel department often uses a number of methods to select applicants who they would like to interview. Your cover letter and resume must be perfect in order to ensure that you will not be looked over because of a minor mistake. This unit focuses on the various documents required for a successful job application, as well as interviewing techniques and appropriate vocabulary to use in your resume, cover letter and during the job interview itself. Finding a Job There are many ways to find a job. One of the most common is looking through the positions offered a section of your local newspaper. Here is an example of a typical job posting: Job Opening Due to the enormous success of Jeans and Co., we have a number of job openings for shop assistants and local management positions. Shop Assistant:  Successful candidates will have a high school degree with at least 3 years working experience and two current references. Desired qualifications include basic computer skills. Key responsibilities will include operating cash registers and providing customers with any help they may need. Management Positions:  Successful candidates will have a college degree in business administration and management experience. Desired qualifications include management experience in retail and thorough knowledge of Microsofts Office Suite. Responsibilities will include management of local branches with up to 10 employees. Willingness to move frequently also a plus. If you wish to apply for one of the above vacancies, please send a resume and cover letter to our personnel manager at: Jeans and Co.254 Main StreetSeattle, WA 98502 The Cover Letter The cover letter introduces your resume or CV when applying for a job interview. There a few important things that need to be included in the cover letter. Most importantly, the cover letter should point out why you are particularly suited to the position. The best way to do this is to take the job posting and point out the highlights in your resume that exactly match the desired qualifications. Here is an outline to writing a successful cover letter. To the right of the letter, look for important notes concerning the layout of the letter signaled by a number in parenthesis (). Peter Townsled35 Green Road (1)Spokane, WA 87954April 19, 200_ Mr. Frank Peterson, Personnel Manager (2)Jeans and Co.254 Main StreetSeattle, WA 98502 Dear Mr. Trimm: (3) (4) I am writing to you in response to your advertisement for a local branch manager, which appeared in the Seattle Times on Sunday, June 15. As you can see from my enclosed resume, my experience and qualifications match this positions requirements. (5) My current position managing the local branch of national shoe retailers has provided the opportunity to work in a high-pressure, team environment, where it is essential to be able to work closely with my colleagues in order to meet sales deadlines. In addition to my responsibilities as manager, I also developed time management tools for staff using Access and Excel from Microsofts Office Suite. (6) Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to the opportunity to personally discuss why I am particularly suited to this position. Please telephone me at after 4.00 p.m. to suggest a time that we may meet. I can also be reached by email at petertnet.com Sincerely, Peter Townsled Peter Townsled (7) Enclosure Notes Begin your cover letter by placing your address first, followed by the address of the company you are writing to.Use complete title and address; dont abbreviate.  Always make an effort to write directly to the person in charge of hiring.Opening paragraph - Use this paragraph to specify which job you are applying for, or if you are writing to inquire whether a job position is open, question the availability of an opening.Middle paragraph(s) - This section should be used to highlight your work experience which most closely matches the desired job requirements presented in the job opening advertisement. Do not simply restate what is contained in your resume. Notice how the example makes a special effort to show why the writer is especially suited to the job position opening posted above.Closing paragraph - Use the closing paragraph to ensure action on the part of the reader. One possibility is to ask for an interview appointment time. Make it easy for the personnel department to conta ct you by providing your telephone number and email address. Always sign letters. enclosure indicates that you are enclosing your resume. Finding a Job For ESL Learners Finding a Job - Writing a Cover LetterWriting Your ResumeThe Interview: BasicsExample Interview QuestionsListen to a Typical Job InterviewUseful Job Interview Vocabulary